Rugulosin

Rugulosin is an anthraquinoid secondary metabolite first isolated from Penicillium rugulosum and structurally characterized as a dimeric anthraquinone derivative. Early biochemical investigations demonstrated impairment of mitochondrial function, while later mechanistic studies showed inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase and ribonuclease H. Chronic exposure studies in mice established its hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic properties, identifying rugulosin as a significant fungal mycotoxin with carcinogenic potential. These findings define rugulosin as a bioactive anthraquinone dimer affecting transcriptional machinery and mitochondrial metabolism, contributing to long-term liver toxicity.